The term «the last Roman» has already become firmly established in ancient historical scholarship, despite the fact that it still lacks a precise definition. One can speak of the last Romans from both political and sociocultural perspectives–it all depends on the period and context. However, it should be noted that in military history, this term became entrenched much earlier, when the great commanders of the dying empire were already considered by their contemporaries to be the last embodiment of a great military tradition. For several centuries now, the image of the last Romans has been promoted in both drama and cinema, which also raises the relevance of this problem as a harbinger of the fall of any civilization. Thus, to establish clarity, I shall provide the definition of «the last Roman» that I will use hereafter.

«The last Roman» in military affairs is a person who embodies ancient martial art and traditions, possessing a certain military-Roman mindset and mentality: skilled in battles and negotiations, a capable commander and cunning politician. Embodying Roman martial valor and skill, he is a symbol, a kind of national hero. He does not necessarily have to be Roman by origin. This term also helps to trace such a complex phenomenon as the transformation of society from ancient to strictly Christian, to distinguish cultures and their values. Of course, Christianity in the Roman Empire remains a subject of debate to this day–whether it benefited the empire or accelerated the decay of a once magnificent warlike culture that managed to build its civilization through the prism of the army. Many historians tend to believe that Christianity breathed new life into dying antiquity, granting it several more centuries of no less magnificent culture; however, the change in mentality hardly benefited the constantly warring empire.

The first figure to be examined is Flavius Stilicho–an outstanding military leader of the late 4th–early 5th century, a Vandal by origin. Claudian writes the following about him: «Stilicho alone repelled the enemies who had broken through the Alps, and with a small force crushed the hordes of barbarians who had invaded Italy. Stilicho alone, when the Vindelician lands were engulfed in flames, when the enemy was already raging in the Norian mountains, and the Raetian fortresses were falling, rushed to the rescue, not fearing the winter Alps, and did not allow the barbarians to break through to the Italic fields». [1, p. 378]. Stilicho was a talented commander who participated in the Battle of the Frigidus, the battles of Pollentia, Verona, and Faesulae, repelling the onslaught of barbarians. However, despite his achievements, he did not receive the glory of «the last Roman» among his contemporaries and was unjustly forgotten. This is partly due to his Germanic origin, which, despite his service to the empire, left its mark on his personality. Stilicho, despite his Roman upbringing, retained barbaric ruthless traits, which is why he was not awarded the title of «the last Roman».

The next figure is Flavius Constantius–a figure of the early 5th century, co-ruler of Emperor Honorius. Orosius writes the following about him: «Constantius, who was then in charge of military affairs, blocked the barbarians in Gaul near Arelate, and the usurper Constantine, besieged and captured, was killed. Constantius also expelled the Goths from Narbonne, using economic blockade rather than military force». [2, p. 297]. Constantius was a valiant commander, but a short-sighted politician. He did not receive the status of «the last Roman» in historical memory, especially in the Byzantine tradition, although his contribution to the defense of the empire was significant.

Boniface — Comes of the province of Africa, the main rival of Aetius. Procopius of Caesarea writes the following about him: «At that time, the Romans had two military leaders: Aetius and Boniface, and both had reached the heights of military valor. In political skill, they would not have yielded to any of those who ever glorified themselves with it. One of them, Boniface, was called by the Romans of that time 'the last of the Romans,' meaning that all the valor of the Romans was concentrated in him». [3, p. 320–321].

Olympiodorus of Thebes provides a vivid example of Boniface's personal courage and adherence to justice: «Boniface was a hero who fought successfully against barbarian tribes. Once, when a barbarian federate offended a peasant, Boniface personally punished the offender, demonstrating that Roman law applies to everyone equally». [4, p. 202]. This episode characterizes Boniface as a man who preserved the mentality of a soldier not yet altered by Christianity–a true Roman who valued justice and personal honor above all.

Procopius of Caesarea honored him with the title of «the last Roman» on par with Aetius. The author calls him «the last Roman man» who preserved the mentality of a soldier not yet changed by Christianity. Boniface embodied those qualities that were valued in the Roman army since ancient times: personal courage, fairness to subordinates and the civilian population, the ability to make independent decisions. His rivalry with Aetius became one of the tragic pages in the history of the dying empire, when two outstanding commanders, instead of uniting against common enemies, wasted their strength in internecine struggle.

Flavius Aetius is called the most outstanding commander of the 5th century. The victor over Attila in the «Battle of the Nations» on the Catalaunian Plains, a skilled diplomat who used his connections with the Huns. Gregory of Tours provides a detailed description of his appearance and character: « He was of medium height, manly in his habits, well-proportioned and strong, with no bodily infirmity; his mental faculties were keen; he was energetic, a superb horseman, a skilled archer, tireless with the spear; he was an extremely capable soldier and skilled in the arts of peace; there was no avarice in him and even less cupidity; he was generous by nature and never allowed his judgment to be swayed by the advice of unworthy counselors; he bore wrongs with great patience; he was hardworking, fearless of danger, and very capable of enduring hunger, thirst, and sleeplessness». [5, p. 35–36].

Jordanes writes about his main achievement: «The battle was fierce, confused, monstrous, relentless — such as antiquity had never reported, and in which such deeds were accomplished that a man who was deprived of seeing this miracle would not have been able to see anything more remarkable in his entire life». [6, p. 111]. This is how the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains is described, where Aetius, having united the forces of the Romans and their barbarian allies, stopped the invasion of Attila's Huns.

The author believes that Aetius delayed the death of the empire by 25 years. He is recognized as a «cult figure» whose authority in the troops was undisputed. Aetius was not only an outstanding commander but also a subtle politician who understood that the empire could no longer rely solely on its own forces. His ability to negotiate with barbarians, use some tribes against others, maintain a balance of power–all this made him indispensable for the dying empire.

The tragic end of Aetius — he was killed by Emperor Valentinian III himself in 454 — symbolizes the agony of the Western Roman Empire. According to the famous saying, the emperor «cut off his right hand with his left». After the death of Aetius, the empire had no one capable of organizing effective resistance to the barbarians, and twenty-two years later Rome fell.

Belisarius — a commander of the Eastern Roman Empire (6th century), a trusted person of Justinian I. Procopius of Caesarea, who personally accompanied Belisarius on his campaigns, left detailed descriptions of his military achievements. Belisarius returned the lost lands (including Rome) to the bosom of the empire, fought against the barbarians — Vandals in Africa, Ostrogoths in Italy, Persians in the East.

Unlike his predecessors, Belisarius was a deeply believing Christian, which marks the transformation of the image of «the last Roman». If Boniface and Aetius were still bearers of the ancient Roman military tradition with its pagan roots, then Belisarius represents a new type of commander — a Christian warrior. However, this did not prevent him from remaining a brilliant strategist and tactician, capable of winning victories with limited forces.

Belisarius represents «the last embodiment of the Roman military tradition». With his departure, «the last Romans» finally disappear from the historical scene. He combined in himself both the ancient Roman military virtues — courage, discipline, strategic thinking — and the new Christian values. In this sense, Belisarius is a transitional figure, a bridge between antiquity and the Middle Ages.

The author concludes that the phenomenon of «the last Romans» is a reflection of the process of breaking and transformation of ancient society in the 5th–6th centuries. These personalities expressed the departing traditions and ideals of service to the state, which subsequently changed under the influence of a new way of life and religion.

The «last Romans» were not just talented commanders — they were bearers of a certain worldview, a system of values that was rooted in the centuries-old history of Rome. With their departure, not just an era ended — an entire civilization departed, giving way to a new world with different ideals and values. However, the memory of them remained, and the very term «the last Roman» became a symbol of loyalty to duty, military valor, and service to the state until the very end.

References:

1. Claudian. De Consulatu Stilichonis / Ed. G. P. Goold. — London, 1922. — P. 364–392.
2. Pavl Orosii. Historiarum adversum paganos, VII / Ed. C. Zangemeister. — Leipzig, 1889. — 371 p.
3. Procopii Caesariensis. De Bello Vandalico // Opera Omnia. Vol. 1/ Ed. J. Haury. — Leipzig, 1905. — P. 305–552.
4. Olympiodorus Thebaeus Historia: fragmenta // The Fragmentary Classicising Historians of the Later Roman Empire: Eunapius, Olympiodorus, Priscus and Malchus. Vol. II: Text, Translation and Historiographical Notes / Ed. R. C. Blockley. — Liverpool, 1983. — 525 p.
5. Gregorius Turonensis. Gregorii episcopi Turonensis Libri historiarum X / Ed. B. Krusch, W. Levison. — Hannover, 1951. — 641 p.
6. Iordanis. Romana et Getica / Ed. Th. Mommsen. — Berlin, 1882. — 287 p.